General Management Theories

General Management Theories: There are four general administration hypotheses. 1. Frederick Taylor †Theory of Scientific Management. 2. Henri Fayol †Administrative Management Theory. 3. Max Weber †Bureaucratic Theory of Management. 4. Elton Mayo †Behavioral Theory of Management (Hawthorne Effect). 1. Frederick Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management. Taylor’s hypothesis of logical administration planned for, improving monetary effectiveness, particularly work profitability. Taylor had a basic view about, what persuaded individuals at work, †money.He felt that, laborers ought to get a, reasonable day's compensation for a reasonable day's worth of effort, and that pay, ought to be connected to the sum delivered. In this manner he presented the, DIFFERENTIAL PIECE RATE SYSTEM, of paying wages to the laborers. Taylor's Differential Piece Rate Plan. On the off chance that Efficiency is more prominent than the characterized Standard, at that point la borers ought to be paid 120 % of Normal Piece Rate. In the event that Efficiency is not exactly standard, at that point laborers ought to be paid 80% of Normal Piece Rate. Standards of Scientific Management. Four Principles of Scientific Management are: 1. Time and movement study: †Study the manner in which occupations are performed and find better approaches to do them. 2.Teach, prepare and build up the worker with improved techniques for accomplishing work. Arrange the new strategies into rules. 3. Enthusiasm of boss ; representatives ought to be completely blended to make sure about commonly understanding relations between them. 4. Set up reasonable degrees of execution and pay a premium for better. 2. Henri Fayol’s Administrative Management Theory: Henri Fayol known as the Father Of Management set out the 14 standards of Management. †1. Division of Work. 2. Value. 3. Control. 4. Activity. 5. Authority and Responsibility. 6. Esprit De Corps. 7. Subjection of Indi vidual Interest to General Interest. . Solidness of Tenure. 9. Compensation. 10. Solidarity of Direction. 11. Centralization. 12. Scalar Chain. 14. Solidarity of Command. 3. Max Weber’s Bureaucratic Theory Of Management Weber made a qualification among power and force. Weber accepted that force elicits dutifulness through power or the danger of power which actuates people to stick to guidelines. As indicated by Max Weber, there are three sorts of intensity in an association:- 1. Customary Power 2. Appealling Power 3. Bureaucratic Power or Legal Power. Highlights of Bureaucracy: 1. Division of Labor. 2. Formal Hierarchical Structure. 3.Selection dependent on Technical Expertise. 4. The board by Rules. 5. Composed Documents. 6. Just Legal Power is Important. 7. Formal and Impersonal relations. 4. Elton Mayo’s Behavioral Theory of Management: Elton Mayo's investigations demonstrated an expansion in laborer efficiency was created by the mental boost of being singled out, i ncluded, and caused to feel significant. Hawthorne Effect, can be summed up as â€Å"Employees will react emphatically to any novel change in workplace like better brightening, clean work stations, migrating workstations and so forth. Representatives are progressively beneficial on the grounds that they realize they are being considered.

Essay On The Crucible Example For Students

Exposition On The Crucible It is a play with enormous emotions with numerous inside turns covered up in the documents of the genuine story. It is a play with enthusiastic sentiments, sentiments of outrage, detest, fiendish, control, great, and immaculateness. It is The Crucible. In the play, Arthur Miller builds up the possibility that intensely held convictions direct people groups conduct, Abigail Williams who denounces others to escape from discipline, Mary Warren who decides to deceive keep herself in the clear, and John Proctor who decides to forfeit his life to spare the lives of other honest individuals. Arthur Miller creates Abigail Williams as a malicious character. She entices Proctor into lustfulness, and come its illicit demonstrations which all are against the Puritan religion. To get away from discipline for moving, she avoids the activities and accuses them for another person, and couldn't care less what number of lives she annihilates. Later when she develops into force and impact, she appears to appreciate sending these honest individuals their demises. She additionally utilizes abhorrent activities camouflaged as great by conceding who was with the fallen angel, She sends her soul on me in chapel; she makes me chuckle at supplication! Clearly the individuals she denounces are really honest, however she can control Judge Danforth into accepting that she is making the best decision and coming clean. Mary Warrens aims toward the start of the story were to do acceptable and equity. Yet, she sees that when she is in a tough situation, she additionally needs somebody to avoid the discipline on. This avarice brings about her expression that John Proctor was related with Satan, and that he had her and caused her to do all of wrong activities, You are the Devils man! Sick not hang with you! I love God, I love God. (P. 118) Her goals were first acceptable, however then her activities transformed into detestable, much the same as Abigail Williams. John Proctor is the hero in the play. He is a legend toward the finish of the play, when he dishonestly concedes that he was with Satan each of the a long. He at that point will not tell the pass judgment and blame anybody for being with Satan too like Abigail did. Consequently he might be viewed as a legend, for biting the dust for a reason for sparing the lives of other blameless individuals. John Proctor additionally attempts to shield his better half, and endeavors to cause the adjudicator to acknowledge how Abigail Williams is controlling him. Taking everything into account, Arthur Miller builds up the possibility that effectively held convictions direct people groups conduct. The powers of good constantly attempted to do what was the best for everyone, regardless of whether it implied violating some Puritan laws. The detestable gathering did whatever was best for themselves. They were covetous, and had no thought of others.

Sample TOEFL Integrated Essay Endotherms

Sample TOEFL Integrated Essay Endotherms Sample TOEFL Integrated EssayThe QuestionThis integrated (Type 1) question is taken from theOfficial TOEFL iBT Tests CollectionfromETS. It also appeared on one of the TPO tests (number 4, I think).Special Offer: TOEFL Essay Evaluation and ScoringYou can now sign up to have your practice essays evaluated and scored by the author of this page. This service is a great way to learn how you will do before test day and how you can best prepare for the big day. Sign up today.The Sample Essay The reading and the listening are about whether or not dinosaurs were endotherms. The author of the reading feels there is evidence to suggest that dinosaurs were animals of this type. The professor, on the other hand, is not convinced of this. He casts doubt on each of the theories presented in the reading. First of all, the author points out that dinosaur fossils have been found in cold polar regions. It is noted that only animals that can maintain warm body temperatures, like endotherms, coul d have been active in climates of this type. The lecturer casts doubt on this claim. She observes that today’s polar regions were much warmer during the time of the dinosaurs; warm enough for non-endotherms to inhabit them. Moreover, she observes that such animals could have migrated or hibernated during months when the temperatures actually were very cold. Secondly, the author contends that the dinosaurs were endotherms based on the structure of their legs. The article points out that dinosaurs had legs underneath their bodies, just like all modern endotherms. On the other hand, the lecturer notes that the leg structure of dinosaurs served merely to support their weight. She contends that having legs under their bodies allowed the dinosaurs to evolve to very large sizes, which was advantageous in many ways. Finally, the author makes a connection between endothermic animals and bone structure. The bones of dinosaurs contained bodies called Haversian canals, which helped th em to grow large, which is a common characteristic of endotherms. The professor challenges the validity of this point. She notes that dinosaur bones also show evidence of growth rings. She says that these rings indicate that the dinosaurs grew in spurts, which is a characteristic of non-endotherms.NoteThis is a sample TOEFL integrated essay written by a native speaker. It follows our TOEFL writing templates for integrated essays. If you find it useful, please remember that we have many more sample essaysfor you to read!

Intercultural Communication Theories Covering Hofstede...

John Collier is an individual who has experienced living, working and socialising overseas with people from different ethnicities. In 1957 he moved from Stamford, England to Seletar, Singapore to take up a job as a manager with the military. Collier continued to live in Singapore for three years until his return to England in 1960. His experiences and insight into the foreign culture of 1950’s Singapore will be explored in this essay, with specific reference to intercultural communication theories covering: Hofstede’s value orientations, attributions, intercultural sensitivity, impact of culture, prejudice and culture shock. In applying Hofstede’s value orientations, 1950’s England was an entirely different cultural experience than can be found in contemporary society today. Equality was uncommon in England’s cultural landscape; there was a hierarchical order in which the higher and lower classes lived their lives with little to no need for any justification (Waisfisz, 2015). It was also a society in which gender roles were significantly dissimilar. â€Å"Women, once married would stay home to raise and look after the children, whilst it was the man’s job to provide an income that could allow this to happen† (Collier, 2015). Contemporary England holds altered cultural insights that are very similar to those in New Zealand. Both countries believe in a minimized power distance amongst the population, resulting in a culture based on equality rather than hierarchy. ContemporaryShow MoreRelatedIntercultural Communication21031 Words   |  85 PagesI. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNIC ATION. FRAMEWORK ...the single greatest barrier to business success is the one erected by culture. Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall Why study Intercultural Communication? Cultural diversity and multiculturalism are the realities of everyday life for almost everyone. The growth of interdependence of people and cultures in the global society of the twenty-first century has forced us to pay more attention to intercultural issues. In order to live and functionRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pagesand permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturersRead MoreOrganizational Behaviour Analysis28615 Word s   |  115 PagesPage i Page ii Please do not attempt to eat these notes. CONTENTS Introduction to the Workshop Topics And Themes The Nature and Scope of Organisation Theory Levels of Analysis The Metaphorical Approach Organising Processes Understanding Change Conflict, Negotiation, and the Politics of Change Group and Team Working Cultures and Leaders as Cultural Agents Trust Linking the Themes Introductory Notes on Organisational Analysis Understanding Organisations The Limits of RationalismRead MoreLibrary Management204752 Words   |  820 PagesCongress Subject Headings: Principles and Application, Fourth Edition Lois Mai Chan Developing Library and Information Center Collections, Fifth Edition G. Edward Evans and Margaret Zarnosky Saponaro Metadata and Its Impact on Libraries Sheila S. Intner, Susan S. Lazinger, and Jean Weihs Organizing Audiovisual and Electronic Resources for Access: A Cataloging Guide, Second Edition Ingrid Hsieh-Yee Introduction to Cataloging and Classification, Tenth Edition Arlene G. Taylor LIbRaRy and InfoRMaTIonRead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 PagesRFP’s and vendor selection (.3.4.5) 11.2.2.6 SWAT analysis 6.5.2.7 Schedule compression 9.4.2.5 Leadership skills G.1 Project leadership 10.1 Stakeholder management Chapter 11 Teams Chapter 3 Organization: Structure and Culture 2.4.1 Organization cultures [G.7] 2.4.2 Organization structure [9.1.3] 9.1.1 Organization charts 1.4.4 Project offices Chapter 4 9.2 Building the team (.1.3) [3.5.3] [App G.2 Building teams] 9.4 Managing the team 9.3.2 Team building activities 9.2.4 Virtual

Types Of Therapies For Cancer Treatment Essay - 1558 Words

INTRODUCTION There are many different types of therapies for cancer treatment. Chemotherapy is the most common and following that is immunotherapy. A recent method has been discovered that is a targeted therapy. The recent discovery of targeted therapies has offered a wealth of improvements in the field of oncology. Targeted therapy is the most recent type of cancer treatment that uses drugs to attack solely cancer cells while trying to minimize the damage to normal cells. Targeted therapies attack the programming inside cells, what sets them apart from healthy normal cells. A recent targeted therapy of Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) have been revealed to provide an alternative therapy for cancers that involve mutations in the genes: BRCA1 and BRCA2. These two genes are involved in repair of double stranded break (DSB). When either gene is mutated, the change can lead to errors in DNA repair that can cause cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PAR Ps) are enzymes that have been recently recognized as critical regulators of cell survival and cell death. Drugs that inhibit PARP-1 help fight cancers caused by mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2. MECHANISM OF ACTION A research group in France discovered that flooding BRCA gene deficient cells with DSBs leads to cell death, and to do this they increased the number of SSBs thereby blocking the enzyme Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. Blocking this enzyme using various drugs is what isShow MoreRelatedCommon Treatment Options For Esophageal Cancer1524 Words   |  7 Pagesmost common type of cancers around the world is esophageal cancer. The common risk factors that increase esophageal cancer are the use of tobacco and alcohol, and gastric reflux. More men than women are affected by esophageal cancer [7]. The risk of cancer can be reduced by quitting smoking and quitting drinking alcohol, eating nutritious food, and doing exercise [6,7]. The common treatment options available for esophageal cancer are chemoradiation, invasive surgery, and photodynamic therapy. The mostRead MoreThe Body s Cell Regeneration System Breakdown1344 Words   |  6 PagesCancer is an abnormal growth of body cells, which c an starts anywhere in the body. When the cancer develops, the body’s cell regeneration system breakdown. The cells become more abnormal and form the tumor. Cancerous tumors are malignant which means they can spread into the surrounding tissues and travel to the distant places in the body through the blood and lymphatic system (National Cancer Institute, 2015). There are more than 100 types of cancers such as lung cancer, breast cancer, brain tumorRead MoreEssay about Radiation Therapy1225 Words   |  5 PagesWhat do cancer, radiation, and technology have in common? The links between the three are quite extraordinary. Cancer is a disease that accounts for 13% of all deaths in the world (Delfino and Day 1). The disease has an impact on patients, friends and their love ones. According to WebMD, radiation is energy that travels in the form of waves through radiation therapy. Through radiation therapy, radiation is used to stop, slow or cure the growth of cancer. With technolo gy, radiologists can treatRead MoreThe Many Uses of Radiation in Medicine651 Words   |  3 Pagesthink cancer. There are many uses of radiation in medicine. There are several ways to detect forms of cancer in the body. One form of detection is having a positron emission tomography scan also knows as a PET scan. Radiation is also used as a therapy through the use of a treatment using chemotherapy. There is also a form of treatment called Radiation therapy that is used as a medical use. 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This happens whenRead MoreThere Have Been Numerous Types Of Treatment Since The First1033 Words   |  5 PagesThere have been numerous types of treatment since the first documentation of cancer. Surgery, chemo-therapy and radiation therapy are the three best-known today. There are also some exciting developments in genome research that may help us treat these diseases in a more efficient way. The oldest effective treatment known to us is surgery, which Ancient Egyptians used for early tumor removal. Surgical â€Å"treatments† are often the first to be considered because resecting, or cutting out a tumor,Read MoreCancer Research1035 Words   |  5 Pagesnew cases of cancer and an estimated of 595,690 people will die from the disease in 2016 (Cancer Statistics†). Cancer is a very common aliment that affects men, women, children, and all races and ethnicities. There are many different types of cancers, and cancer research has been a focal point for many scientists. 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Teaching for Creativity Free Essays

Introduction The lack of creativity in teaching has been a significant issue in recent years. In All Our Futures: Creativity, Cultures and Education, a report by the National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education (NACCE) in May 1999, there are proposals suggested to implement a wider nationwide scheme for creative education. The report highlighted that children profit from using creative skills and by having these skills developed. We will write a custom essay sample on Teaching for Creativity or any similar topic only for you Order Now It also suggested that creative teaching should be made part of all academic education. This was the first time that this issue had been fully recognised. In response to this report, the government has acknowledged the significance of developing the creative skills of children, as these could become essential in future workplaces. The Nation Curriculum recognises that many employers want and need creative people: ‘Schools that promote creativity will ensure that pupils respond positively to opportunities and responsibilities and are better able to cope with new challenges as well as change and adversity’ (National Curriculum 1999). Creativity helps teachers deliver the academic curriculum to students in an appealing manner. The NACCE report highlighted that there is a difference between teaching creatively and teaching for creativity. Teaching creatively can be interpreted as a teacher being inventive and developing strategies to engage and encourage students. On the other hand, teaching for creativity focuses on strategies that aim to develop the creative skills of the learners. Subjects such as design and technology can contribute greatly to the enhancement of creativity, as evidenced by the specific outcomes of the National Curriculum that indicate learners should be able to think creatively. In design and technology, creativity is central to developing the learner, so it is crucial that teachers of the subject recognise how to foster creativity. Nichol, points out that teachers have an important responsibility to increase ‘creativity in the DT classroom’ (2004, p.1). Therefore, teachers have the responsibility of ensuring the development and promotion of creativity in students. Teachers have to set examples for their pupils, so the use of creativity must originate from the teacher. To do this, there are many things teachers can do. Davies (1999, p.102), suggests the chance for learners to develop creatively in the classroom depends critically on how much support is exploited through teachers. Creativity cannot be easily defined because there are a number of different approaches to understanding creativity. This paper focuses on teaching for creativity. In order to promote this I have considered how teachers can create the conditions of a secure environment where pupils feel they can take risks without being penalised and how imaginations can be stimulated through different strategies. Create the conditions Creativity can be defined as the willingness to be courageous, adventurous, daring and to try new things. Creative people take risks and produce some of the best ideas. Iconic designer, Michael Wolff, has never been afraid of taking risks; he has achieved great things through his passion, vision and daring attitude. Design and technology is a very ‘creative and innovative subject’ where pupils are motivated to utilize different thinking approaches and ‘to take risks’ (Spendlove, 2002). When designing and making, creative work is likely to bring about original knowledge which will incur risk taking. Innovation and risk taking are skills that are close together, as designers have to deal with the insecurity involved in creating something new. Young people tend to be very conservative when designing. However, risk taking as part of innovation can help take students out of their comfort zone. When this happens there can be a high level of uncertainty and a great emotional reaction. If teaching encourages pupils, then ‘there is merit in taking chances in using trial and error to improve ideas’ (Owen-Jackson, 2008, p.142) because a more liberated atmosphere in the classroom is created. It is a well-known saying that we learn from our mistakes. However, the fear of making mistakes can prevent learners from trying anything new, so by an atmosphere of trust and a secure environment reassures pupils that they can take risks without being penalised if the outcome is not what they intended. I try to encourage an atmosphere in the classroom were learners feel comfortable in taking risks, rather than worrying about making a mistake. The National Strategy, Social and Emotion Aspects of Learning (SEAL), is an effective way to encourage communal and emotional skills in students. SEAL encourages learners to be ‘more aware of risk and the consequences of certain choices,’ and educates them ‘how to make appropriate choices’ (The National Strategy, 2010). The National Endowment for Science, Technology and the Arts (NESTSA), launched a project in 2009, Butterflies in my Tummy, which combines aspects of DT and SEAL. The scheme’s objective is to â₠¬Ëœpromote innovation and risk-taking when children are designing’ (DT Association, 2010). The concepts of SEAL are encouraged to create a secure environment and positive working relationship that expand the abilities and approaches required for risk taking and creativity. Creativity for me is all about taking risks. I totally agree that ‘experimenting and notional failure are essential to good DT education’ (Spendlove, 2002). A popular British proverb, the man who does not make mistakes is unlikely to make anything, can be seen to be true when it comes to creativity. POST-IT notes, for example, were conceptualized from a bad glue formula; sometimes mistakes lead to better ideas. Creativity is often blocked by the fear of being wrong, so using the SEAL approach is helping me support risk taking and therefore nurture creativity in the classroom. Being prepared to be wrong is an important part of being creative and having original ideas that have value. Learners should not be penalised if a bad outcome occurs through taking a risk, as long as the learner recognises where they went wrong and learn from their mistakes. I have embedded SEAL into my teaching by supporting the learners to take risks, encouraging experimentation and providing cons tructive feedback to address any problems. In the exploration and development of ideas, I encourage risk taking and experimentation, so that learners have the chance to come up with new ideas and learn from their mistakes. Having pupils look at their final product and reflect on what they did right as well as what they did wrong is very important. Recently, I undertook a ‘Stars and Wishes’ task with a Year 9 design and technology class. The task involved each pupil commenting on two things they were proud of, their Stars, and two things they needed to improve, their wishes. This was in relation to a food product they had made. Some pupils felt like they had failed because their product was not perfect or not what they had expected. However, when I encouraged them to think of two things that they were proud of, they realised that there were many things they had achieved. They then began to appreciate the effort they had put in. If pupils cannot see anything they have done well, they are likely to stop trying and give up. After looking at positives, I then encouraged the pupils to reflect on their mistakes. The nature of the task encouraged an environment where the pupils felt comfortable in admitting to their mistakes or areas that needed improving; this is where significant learning takes place. If pupils do not acknowledge their mistakes, they will be likely to repeat them. The two ‘wishes’ for each pupil became their objectives for the next practical lesson. In many situations it is often the teacher that comments on areas of improvement. However, because the pupils had the opportunity to reflect and comment on their own performance, it created a more enthusiastic approach to learning and the pupils wanted to achieve and perform even better. The next lesson the pupils learned from their mistakes and did better. As a result, their work was more creative because they were comfortable to take a risk. The students knew that it was acceptable if they made a mistake, as long as they acknowl edge it and learned from it. Teachers provide a supportive environment that encourages risk taking by acting as a role model. I show pupils that I am not afraid to take acceptable risks and when I make mistakes I remind pupils that mistakes are opportunities to learn. Through my examples, pupils see that taking risks is a valuable and necessary part of learning. By designing classroom environments that encourage risk taking, learners are supported and encouraged to take creative risks. These teaching strategies promote creativity by creating an atmosphere that encourages sensible risk taking, allows for mistakes and encourages learners to persist and to accept not getting things right the first time. Stimulate Imaginations It is often common to hear that good teachers are ‘imaginative’. These teachers show a mental flexibility that permits them to present a subject in a new and engaging way that supports students to be creative and enjoy learning. Philosopher Mary Warnock studied imagination and referred to it as the ‘chief aim of education’ (1976, p.9) and that ‘we have a duty to educate the imagination’. Many would argue this statement, however, I believe that imagination enhances creativity and only through this can we bring our ideas into realisation. Imagination helps to realise our full potential, therefore teachers have an essential responsibility to educate imagination. In order for imagination to grow there has to be resources to stimulate it. The more experiences pupils gain the greater their imagination, so pupils must have the resources they need to be creative. I have considered just a few teaching strategies that I consider to be effective ways of st imulating imagination in the classroom. Often imagination is associated with imagery and when people try to describe imagination, often they refer to the capacity we have to hold images in our minds. Good visuals have the potential to enhance creativity. Several professional designers were interviewed by Malcolm Welch and David Barlex (2004) to find out what they used to support and enhance their creativity. The designers used ‘job bags’ which contained anything relevant to a particular project: models, photographs, drawings and digital images of models (Barlex, 2007). Mood boards are also excellent visual guides that stimulate inspiration. According to Bill Nichol (2004), strategies such as developing mood boards help learners develop their creative potential. During Nichols research on creativity and innovation, pupils commented on the ‘freedom’ they had when producing mood boards (2004, p.4). The benefits of using visuals help increase the learner’s creative capacity. An ancient proverb states that on a blank sheet of paper the most beautiful of marks can be made, however, Welch (Bartlex, 2007) deliberates that a blank piece of paper may be very intimidating to pupils. From my experience, pupils tend to reflect Welch’s theory and are daunted by the thought of making the first mark. As often as possible I try to give pupils a choice to work from a blank piece of paper or an alternative. Most often the pupils choose the alternative. The alternative could be a mini white board which, although is a blank canvas, pupils do not have the fear of making a mistake because they know it can easily be erased. In a Food Technology lesson I undertook, the pupils had the task of designing a cupcake decoration, so I provided templates of cakes for the pupils to illustrate their ideas on. As a result the pupils created more ideas and were more experimental, compared to those that did not use templates. One approach to help stimulate imagination is to encourage divergent thinking through questioning. Effective questions in this instance are those that are open and do not have only one answer. Questions with one word answers are either too easy or too hard; therefore some pupils become bored or frustrated which results in a loss of imagination. Open and relevant questions stretch and add flexibility to the mind. Teaching design and technology imposes many questions throughout each and every process. One of the fundamental notions of DT is the investigation into the design and production of existing products, as well as ‘how they may develop in the future’ (National Curriculum). In order to further enhance the pupil’s awareness, abilities and comprehension the following questions could be asked: What designs already existWhat do you think of themCould they be improvedThis strategy of questioning could also be used to explore the relationships between ‘principles of good design, existing solutions and technological knowledge to develop innovative products and processes’ (National Curriculum). For example: is the product or solution likely to solve the design problemThese type of questions help stimulate imagination by encouraging pupils to see lots of possible answers and see things from different perspectives. Creativity can be enhanced by sharing knowledge. Sharing creative ideas and thoughts can help to stimulate ideas. One way for teachers to promote an atmosphere where pupils can share ideas is through group work. Teachers TV offers a series of programs named ‘Proven to Work’, where one of the programs, ‘Collaborative Enquiry’, shows how collaborative enquiry can be used to stimulate imagination. A class is spilt into mixed ability groups and asked to look at a photograph. The groups are asked to consider what they know from the photograph, what they would like to find out about the image and what it might be. The group discussions then lead to imaginative answers. This technique is often used in design and technology lessons where groups have different objects or products and have to work out what the function or purpose is. Group members have the opportunity to share their perspectives and listen to different views and approaches to problems. When pupils are working in groups they will differentiate between good and bad ideas, so the teachers must not be critical. The responsibility of the teacher is to praise pupils for coming up with ideas, whatever these ideas may be. It is also important that the students are motivated to select and develop the good ideas further. Pupils will profit from experiencing the methods, approaches and skills that others use in the creative process. There are many ways to stimulate imagination and I have only considered a few ways teachers can achieve this. Most pupils already have a rich and varied imagination, but through the teaching of design and technology, teachers can stimulate imagination through various way of teaching for creativity. Conclusion Creative teaching methods are vital for the effectiveness of a teacher. Renzulli (1992) argues that teachers are a fundamental tool in the nurturing of creativity in students. Fasko (2001) stated that ‘creative teaching can enhance learning’. Good teachers use creative teaching methods so they can reach all their pupils and engage them effectively. Creative teaching strategies can help teachers utilise pupil’s strengths to enhance learning and encourage them to develop deeper levels of thinking. Overall they ensure the role of the teacher creates an environment that fosters creativity. This paper has attempted to outline some of the key approaches to improving creativity in classrooms. If creative teaching strategies are incorporated into every lesson they can help children succeed. However, teaching for creativity is ‘a complex and demanding activity in which the role of the teacher is crucial’ (Barlex et al, 2007, p.152). Coming up with creative teaching strategies can put extra strain on teachers if they are not particularly innovative themselves. Morris states that teaching for creativity ‘can involve more time and planning to generate and develop ideas and to evaluate whether they have worked’ (2006, p. 5). Nicholl points out that it is the ‘teachers who sanction creative work’ (2004, p.6). However, encouraging creativity in the classroom is a skill not all teachers possess, yet any person can encourage creativity given the correct skills and knowledge. Teachers have to plan to make it happen; they may have to change their teaching styles so there is more potential for creativity. There is much that teachers can do to enc ourage creativity in the classroom; I have only considered a small fraction of strategies that can aid and stimulate creativity in the teaching of design and technology. Morris comments that there are many ways teachers can use creativity in their classes but it is ‘only a job half done without the support of the school leadership’ (2006, p.7). Morris suggests that school leaders can support teachers in many ways such as providing resources that stimulate creativity and a stimulating environment. Ofsted suggests that school leadership should be dedicated to the encouraging of creativity. It will also ensure that good practise is resourced effectively across the schools. Our government is starting to realise that is it important for children to foster these creative skills, as they may become vital in the future. The need to foster all pupils’ creativity has become an important issue after the NACCE report. The development of creativity should be a concern of the entire school. Creative teaching strategies offer a chance for a fresh vision on education. Unfortunately, there is very little literature and research to evidence that teaching for creativity is effective. The NACCE committee is currently gathering a substantial amount of information that suggests that pupils achieve higher and behave better when they are more engaged in creative activities. The connection between creativity and effective teaching will more than likely be fully explored in the future. Since the NACCE report, creativity has been a debated topic in education and it is likely to remain this way. References Books Barlex, D. ed., 2007. Design Technology: For the next Generation. Shropshire: Cliffe Company. Fisher, R., and Williams, M., 2004. Unlocking Creativity: Teaching Across the Curriculum. London: David Fulton Publishers. Owen-Jackson, G. ed., 2008. Learning to Teach Design and Technology in the Secondary School. Abingdon: Routledge. Warnock, M., 1978. Imagination : University of California Press. Journals Davies, T., 1999. Taking Risks as a Feature of Creativity in the Teaching and Learning of Design and Technology. The Journal of Design and Technology Education, 4 (2), pp.101-108. Fasko, D.J., 2000-2001. Education and Creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 13 (34), pp.317-327. Morris, W., 2006. Creativity: It’s Place in Education NACCE (1999) All Our Futures: Creativity, Culture and Education. National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education Report. London: DfEE. The NACCE report. Renzuli, J., 1992. A General Theory for the Development of Creative Productivity Through the Pursuit of Ideal Acts of Learning. Gifted Child Quarterly 36: 170-182. Websites Department for Education: The National strategies: Seal. [online] Available at: http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/inclusion/behaviourattendanceandseal/seal [Accessed 12/12/10]. DT Association: Nesta: Butterflies in my Tummy [online]. Available at: http://www.data.org.uk/index.php?option=com_contentview=articleid=316Itemid=383 [Accessed 12/12/10]. Spendlove, D., 2002. Risk Brings Rewards. TES Magazine, [online]. Available at: http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=371276 [Accessed 11/12/10]. Teaching expertise: Valuing and developing creativity. [online] Available at: http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/valuing-and-developing-creativity-1007 [Accessed 21/12/10]. Teachers TV: Collaborative Enquiry. [online] Available at: http://www.teachers.tv/videos/collaborative-enquiry [Accessed20/12/10]. How to cite Teaching for Creativity, Essay examples

Will the World Run Out of Water an Example by

Will the World Run Out of Water? Technically speaking, the world will not run out of water. The world is made up of water coming from the ocean which is too salty to be consumed by humans and there is only three percent of fresh water which can be used for drinking, farming and manufacturing. Certainly, there is a scarcity in clean and well sanitized drinking water for all individuals living on Earth due to the fact that the population is rapidly increasing. Ironically, our planet consists of seventy percent water. But not all of these bodies of water can be used by humans. This means that all of the rivers, streams, groundwater, lakes and aquifers are only expected to sustain a certain amount of population. Need essay sample on "Will the World Run Out of Water?" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Effects of global warming also turn running beds of water to run dry. Major rivers from different parts of the world almost scorched before reaching seas and oceans. The water cycle is still at hand to produce water by means of rain or snow while in some areas where there is little or no rain at all, cloud seeding is usually done to create clouds heavier and produce rain. Although there is a strong fear that the blue planet will run dry, it will never experience dryness because majority of Earth is water but it should be cleared that clean freshwater will not be available at all times. As a matter of fact, a number of individuals all over the world are living in areas where there is no safe and clean water. Poor management of water resources and towering water consumption by the increasing population, the world is facing water shortages. Global scarcity of water is increasingly faster than expected and this is one of the main advocacies addressed by numerous conservation organizations all over the world. Billions of inhabitants mainly in Asia and Africa are already facing this problem and some countries have already run out of water to crop their own food. Global water supply is becoming an issue every day and some well developed countries that have plentiful supply of water are sometimes taken for granted the value of water. Global water consumption is rising intensely and the availability of potable water becomes one of the most pressing and continuous issues in the coming years. About one-third of the worlds population subsists in countries that are already experiencing moderate to high levels of water shortage and that number could possibly rise to two-thirds in the next twenty to thirty years. We are living where environmental pressures are escalating and change needs to takes place before it is too late. United Nation is calling for the world wide awareness of water crisis. The issue is not merely about the shortage of water but instead, it is the insufficiency of clean water to support the lives of people. Millions of people from all ages die each passing year after consuming water from unsanitary source. As population grows the demands for potable water also booms, moreover, water is the most vital natural resource of life. Our activities are sustained by water and it is the essential basis of the economy. Water, the most resource taken for granted is already at its deficiency rate. Paucity of water supply in many areas of the world has numerous drawbacks and the current projections that the future generations will still benefit from freshwater is merely decreasing. We can still do something to preserve our main source of potable water and we are all responsible for this - after all, we are consuming water every now and then. References Dalal-Clayton, Barry D., Bass, Stephen (2002). Sustainable development strategies: A resource book. USA: OECD Publishing. De Villiers, Marq (2001). Water: The fate of our most precious resource. USA: Houghton Mifflin Books. Iriye, Akira (2004). Global community: The role of international organizations in the making of the contemporary world. USA: University of California Press. McRae, Hamish (1995). The world in 2020: Power, culture and prosperity. USA: Harvard Business School Press.

The Marketing Concept

The Marketing Concept Abstract The marketing concept remains a fundamental parameter of marketing that makes organizations meet the needs and wants of their customers thereby surviving and flourishing in the dynamic market. Organizations should treat customers as Kings that is giving them the first priority in all their activities. In laying marketing strategies, organizations ought to consider the tastes and preferences of their customers.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Marketing Concept specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This will enable them to produce services and goods that fit into the customers’ bracket of needs and wants. If this process continues, customers’ satisfaction will be assured leading to attraction and maintenance of customers. Since most firms target profit maximization as their main objective, they will also meet the set objectives in the end thus gaining competitive advantage over their competitors i n the marketing environment. This essay will analyse the relationships that exist between satisfaction of customers’ needs and the organizational needs. It will analyse the marketing concept form a historical perspective and analyse the elements that an organization can do to satisfy its customers. In marketing, customers are the most vital aspect since the main objective is to satisfy their needs. The entire organization should understand and uphold the marketing concept as it is not a single domain of the marketing department (Bell, 2010, p. 27). Success in businesses requires an inclusive approach from all the departments. Every manager and employee should put the customer’s needs and satisfaction in the frontline. The marketing concept and philosophy is involved in product, selling and marketing. Product philosophy enables the organization to know what it can produce and what it cannot produce. It can put emphasis on high quality products with low cost of productio n. This philosophy does not lead to poor sales; instead, it creates more market for products made than before. During the industrial revolution, the production was extremely low as goods were made using hands, but the goods were still marketed. Customer’s satisfaction was extremely low because of low and slow production that led to low market. Currently, there is mass production, but it has not covered all customers’ satisfaction.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, it has created economies of scale thereby leading to low cost of production and low price of goods (Hooley et al., 1995, p. 10). This implies that the production philosophy can work in a newly established industry. According to Henry Ford, different colour of products can increase the cost of production, which leads to more market. He argued that to get more customers, one should lowe r prices for goods (Cochran, 2003, p. 15). During the Industrial revolution, there was an increase in the volume of products; this prompted the need for a marketing department that will focus on selling of the goods. Increase in supply and production brought to an end the surplus production leading to advertising and personal selling to reduce inventories and increase sales. Additionally, it enables the organization to focus on the production work, and sell whatever property they produce. Nevertheless, distributing goods according to the consumer’s preference is easier. Further, a good sales department cannot meet the needs of all customers since the customers have many choices. It struggles to make the organization understand the customers before designing and making products. When needs and wants of customers are included in the production work, the organization will increase sales since they will meet the customer’s preference thereby maximizing its profit. The mana gement in organizations should be skilful in order to understand their customers, as this is the key to quality service provision (Cochran, 2003, p. 17). In environmental scanning and forecasting, firms should be able to foresee the needs of their customers. This approach will help organizations meet and exceed the expectations of their customers. In addition, organizations that understand the needs of their customers will be able to alter their services and goods in line with the customers’ change in tastes and preferences in future.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Marketing Concept specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More They can do this without any challenge of reorganization or loss since they keep continuous contact with their customers. Markedly, continuous contact with customers requires an attentive management that can listen to complains that customers raise and reward perennial ones; this increases the ir loyalty to the business. Major business organizational units aim at surviving in the market. How a firm manages its working capital determines its financial health or status. Strategic working capital policies should be available to ensure that the firm will make profit even during a financial crisis. This management helps to generate new capital to settle future debts. A good management of working capital can also make it possible for firms to engage in risky ventures, which have huge returns (McClelland, 1995, p. 97). Therefore, it encourages investment options that can fully satisfy the needs of the customers. Secondly, organizations target growth and development of their internal services in terms of institutional and professional competency, innovations in products and services and customer growth. Firms also aim at fostering strong relationships among its external networks. Lastly, another organizational need is serving and uplifting all its stakeholders; for instance, an o rganization can engage in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) to make changes in the world. It can also encourage its employees to work towards achieving their life objectives through continuous training on life skills. Customers will also like an organization that educates them on the content of various products and how to use them. For organizations to understand their customers, they should try to be in the customers’ shoes, use various organizational data, or even ask the customers on what they think on productivity and service provision. Using the Customer Relationship Management system (CRM) can assist firms to understand the needs of their customers. This data shows how customers take orders and how quick the company delivers these orders. CRM systems contain information on consumer behaviours and preferences that can help an organization to identify various needs of its customers’ thereby increasing profitability (Mckitterick, 2000, p. 21). If an organization utilizes this data carefully, it can improve in customer satisfaction and retention.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A customer survey can also be helpful to an organization that is interested in meeting the needs and wants of its customers. In engaging customers in a satisfaction survey, they feel more valued than in another firm that does not inquire on their views and contributions. Notably, a firm can gain meaningful insights if it goes ahead to inculcate the views of customers when making improvements or changes in their services. Such a scenario will increase customers’ loyalty, which makes it easier for the firm to understand the needs of these customers hence tailor its products towards satisfying these needs. Evidently, such a marketing strategy will alter the performance of a firm since the customers will be able to inform the organization of the behaviours that they feel should be altered. For instance, customers can inform the organization of bad behaviours among its staff only if they are close to the management. If the management can proactively consult its customers, it will be able to correct its wrong doings that could have caused dissatisfaction to customers. Moreover, an organization can opt to be in its customer’s shoes. In this manner, the management will study the points at which the customers access the enterprise. Some of these points include deliveries, phone calls, and correspondence; the management should scrutinize if there is immediate responses to phone calls and the friendliness of its receptionists. The slowness in handling customers’ complains coupled with the arrogance of the receptionist can be the reason behind customers’ dissatisfaction. To avoid losing customers, the management should try to put the interest of its customers at the forefront by addressing their complaints promptly (Mckitterick, 2000, p. 23). Further, the firm should deliver on it promises and even surpass the customers’ targets. All the departments in an organization should focus on surpassing the expectations of the customers. Understa nding the customers remains a secret that businesses can use in identifying the needs and wants of its customers thereby enhancing satisfaction among the customers. Markedly, a firm will realize and surpass its organizational goals of continuous expansion and growth in the market with continuous loyalty of customers. In meeting the customers’ needs, businesses should design products and services that are affordable, attractive, work well and always available. They also engage in product promotion to alert consumers on the existence of their products hence encouraging them to purchase the products. In the current market, customers tend to adopt the new technological systems such as online shopping. An organization should upgrade its information management system in order to be in line with the requirements of the customers. First, organizations with updated Information Management (IM) have all their data well managed in the systems. This information management fosters growth, as it reduces the cost of operation (Bhatt, 2010). Organizations can develop websites that can promote communication. For example, pizza companies have designed a website where their customers can order their own pizzas from the stores. Since organizations handle large volumes of data, there is the need to employ the Information Technology in ensuring proper data storage. Organizations handle clients’ data, employees’ data, managerial data, suppliers, and procurements data amongst others. There is the need to align these pieces of information for easy access by the prospective owners and the organization. This is where the Information management is applicable. Research has revealed that businesses that have a well-organized and managed data improve customer satisfaction minimize cost on IT thus increase revenue and realize improvement on operational efficiency. Further, a properly managed IM eliminates decisions based on assumptions as the information can be retrieved within the shortest time possible; it enables organizations understands their customers’ behaviours and preferences. This enables organizations to serve their clients well and even retain most of them (Bhatt, 2010). IM also increases efficiency as customer care agents can access clients’ data at an instant. Business outlets are inculcating technological modifications into their systems in order to increase their efficiency and reduce the cost of operation. Organizations should use specifications or approaches that they can undertake. Remarkably, the success of Information Management depends on their alignment and integration with the Human Resource (HR) and organization’s objectives. Clearly, an organization that tends to meet the meet the needs of its customers will actually meet its strategic goals and objectives. The customer service department in an organization can assist in attracting, serving, and retaining customers by applying proper knowledge managemen t techniques. Knowledge Management (KM) can assist a firm to predict the future behaviour of its customers in terms of their tastes and preferences. Therefore, KM and environmental forecasting can help a firm to save on the cost of production; therefore, it can direct these funds in expanding its services to occupy large market area (Pride Ferrell, 2002, p. 45). Such a firm will avoid wastage on producing goods or services that will not receive positive market response. Understanding the needs of customers is the job of all departments in an organization. From the above analysis, businesses should put more resources on researches that aim at learning the needs of their customers. Customers remain the epicentre of all businesses since without them, no transaction will occur. Organizations should pay immense attention to the behaviour and complaints of their customers to ensure continuity. An organization that is updated on technology, provides a variety of products, and interacts fr eely with its customers will satisfy the needs of its customers. This act will increase profitability of the organization. The firm will use the profit to expand its services and invest in other risky, but profitable ventures. Therefore, organizations that align their strategic objectives towards customers’ satisfaction will achieve their missions. References Bell, M. L. (2010). Marketing; Concepts and Strategy. University of Minnesota: Houghton Mifflin. Bhatt, Y. (2010, March 1). Information Management: A Key for Creating Business Value. The Data Administration Newsletter – TDAN.com. Retrieved from http://tdan.com/information-management-a-key-for-creating-business-value/12829 Cochran, C. (2003). Customer satisfaction: tools, techniques, and formulas for success. Chico, Calif.: Paton Press. Hooley, G. J., Lynch, J. E., Shepherd, J. (1995). The Marketing Concept: Putting the Theory into Practice. European Journal of Marketing, 24(9), 7-24. Web. McClelland, S. B. (1995) . Organizational Needs Assessments: Design, Facilitating and Analysis. Atlanta: Greenwood Publishing Group. Mckitterick, J. (2000). What is the Marketing Management Concept?. Chicago: Houghton Mifflin. Pride, W., Ferrell, O. C. (2002). Marketing: Concept and Strategies. Abingdon: Deep Deep Publications.

The History of How Cows Were Domesticated

The History of How Cows Were Domesticated According to archaeological and genetic evidence, wild cattle or aurochs (Bos primigenius) were likely domesticated independently at least twice and perhaps three times. A distantly related Bos species, the yak (Bos grunniens grunniens or Poephagus grunniens) was domesticated from its still-living wild form, B. grunniens or B. grunniens mutus. As domesticated animals go, cattle are among the earliest, perhaps because of the multitude of useful products they provide humans: food products such as milk, blood, fat, and meat; secondary products such as clothing and tools manufactured from hair, hides, horns, hooves and bones; dung for fuel; as well as load-bearers and for pulling plows. Culturally, cattle are banked resources, which can provide bride-wealth and trade as well as rituals such as feasting and sacrifices. Aurochs were significant enough to Upper Paleolithic hunters in Europe to be included in cave paintings such as those of Lascaux. Aurochs were one of the largest herbivores in Europe, with the largest bulls reaching shoulder heights of between 160-180 centimeters (5.2-6 feet), with massive frontal horns of up to 80 cm (31 inches) in length. Wild yaks have black upward- and backward-curving horns and long shaggy black to brown coats. The adult males can be 2 m (6.5 ft) high, over 3 m (10 ft) long and can weigh between 600-1200 kilograms (1300-2600 pounds); females weigh only 300 kg (650 pounds) on average. Domestication Evidence Archaeologists and biologists are agreed that there is strong evidence for two distinct domestication events from aurochs: B. taurus in the near east about 10,500 years ago, and B. indicus in the Indus valley of the Indian subcontinent  about 7,000 years ago. There may have been a third auroch domesticate in Africa (tentatively called  B. africanus), about 8,500 years ago. Yaks were domesticated in central Asia about 7,000-10,000 years ago. Recent mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies also indicate that B. taurus was introduced into Europe and Africa where they interbred with local wild animals (aurochs). Whether these occurrences should be considered as separate domestication events is somewhat under debate. Recent genomic studies (Decker et al. 2014) of 134 modern breeds supports the presence of the three domestication events, but also found evidence for later migration waves of animals to and from the three main loci of domestication. Modern cattle are significantly different today from the earliest domesticated versions. Three Auroch Domesticates Bos taurus The taurine (humpless cattle, B. taurus) was most likely domesticated somewhere in the Fertile Crescent about 10,500 years ago. The earliest substantive evidence for cattle domestication anywhere in the world is the Pre-Pottery Neolithic cultures in the Taurus Mountains. One strong strand of evidence of the locus of domestication for any animal or plant is genetic diversity: places that developed a plant or animal generally have high diversity in those species; places where the domesticates were brought in, have lesser diversity. The highest diversity of genetics in cattle is in the Taurus Mountains. A gradual decline in overall body size of aurochs, a characteristic of domestication, is seen at several sites in southeastern Turkey, beginning as early as the late 9th at Cayonu Tepesi. Small-bodied cattle do not appear in archaeological assemblages in the eastern Fertile Crescent until relatively late (6th millennium BC), and then abruptly. Based on that, Arbuckle et al. (2016) surmise that domestic cattle arose in the upper reaches of the Euphrates river. Taurine cattle were traded across the planet, first into Neolithic Europe about 6400 BC; and they appear in archaeological sites as far away as northeastern Asia (China, Mongolia, Korea) by about 5000 years ago. Bos indicus (or B. taurus indicus) Recent mtDNA evidence for domesticated zebu (humped cattle, B. indicus) suggests that two major lineages of B. indicus are currently present in modern animals. One (called I1) predominates in southeast Asia and southern China and is likely to have been domesticated in the Indus Valley region of what is today Pakistan. Evidence of the transition of wild to domestic B. indicus is in evidence in Harappan sites such as Mehrgahr about 7,000 years ago. The second strain, I2, may have been captured in East Asia, but apparently was also domesticated in the Indian subcontinent, based on the presence of a broad range of diverse genetic elements. The evidence for this strain is not entirely conclusive as of yet. Possible: Bos africanus or Bos taurus Scholars are divided about the likelihood of a third domestication event having occurred in Africa. The earliest domesticated cattle in Africa have been found at Capeletti, Algeria, about 6500 BP, but Bos remains are found at African sites in what is now Egypt, such as Nabta Playa and Bir Kiseiba, as long ago as 9,000 years, and they may be domesticated. Early cattle remains have also been found at Wadi el-Arab (8500-6000 BC) and El Barga (6000-5500 BC). One significant difference for taurine cattle in Africa is a genetic tolerance to trypanosomosis, the disease spread by the tsetse fly which causes anemia and parasitemia in cattle, but the exact genetic marker for that trait has not been identified to date. A recent study (Stock and Gifford-Gonzalez 2013) found that although genetic evidence for African domesticated cattle is not as comprehensive or detailed as that for  other forms of cattle, what there is available suggests that domestic cattle in Africa are the result of wild aurochs having been introduced into local domestic B. taurus populations. A genomic study published in 2014 (Decker et al.) indicates that while considerable introgression and breeding practices have altered the population structure of modern day cattle, there is still consistent evidence for three major groups of domestic cattle. Lactase Persistence One recent strain of evidence for the domestication of cattle comes from the study of lactase persistence, the ability to digest milk sugar lactose in adults (the opposite of lactose intolerance). Most mammals, including humans, can tolerate milk as infants, but after weaning, they lose that ability. Only about 35% of people in the world are able to digest milk sugars as adults without discomfort, a trait called lactase persistence. This is a genetic trait, and it is theorized that it would have selected for in human populations that had ready access to fresh milk. Early Neolithic populations who domesticated sheep, goats and cattle would not have yet developed this trait, and probably processed the milk into cheese, yogurt, and butter prior to consuming it. Lactase persistence has been connected most directly with the spread of dairying practices associated with cattle, sheep, and goats into Europe by Linearbandkeramik populations beginning about 5000 BC. And a Yak (Bos grunniens grunniens or Poephagus grunniens) The domestication of yaks may well have made human colonization of the high Tibetan Plateau (also known as Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau) possible. Yaks are extremely well adapted to the arid steppes at high elevations, where low oxygen, high solar radiation, and extreme cold are common. In addition to the milk, meat, blood, fat, and pack energy benefits, perhaps the most important yak byproduct in the cool, arid climate is dung. The availability of yak dung as a fuel was a critical factor in allowing for the colonization of the high region, where other fuel sources are lacking. Yaks possess large lungs and hearts, expansive sinuses, long hair, thick soft fur (very useful for cold-weather clothing), and few sweat glands. Their blood contains a high hemoglobin concentration and red blood cell count, all of which make cold adaptations possible. Domestic Yaks The main difference between wild and domestic yaks is their size. Domestic yaks are smaller than their wild relatives: adults are generally no more than 1.5 m (5 ft) tall, with males weighing between 300-500 kg (600-1100 lbs), and females between 200-300 kg (440-600 lbs). They have white or piebald coats and lack gray-white muzzle hairs. They can and do interbreed with wild yaks, and all yaks have the high altitude physiology they are prized for. There are three types of domestic yaks in China, based on morphology, physiology, and geographical distribution: a valley type distributed in the valleys of north and east Tibet, and some parts of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces;a plateau grassland type mainly found in the high, cold pastures and steppes that maintain an annual average temperature below 2 degrees centigrade;and white yaks found in almost every region in China. Domesticating the Yak Historical reports dated to the Chinese Han Dynasty state that yaks were domesticated by the Qiang people during the Longshan culture period in China, about 5,000 years ago. The Qiang were ethnic groups who inhabited the Tibetan Plateau borderlands including Qinghai Lake. Han Dynasty records also say the Qiang people had a Yak State during the Han dynasty, 221 BC-220 AD, based on a highly successful trade network. Trade routes involving domestic yak were recorded beginning in the Qin dynasty records (221-207 BC)predating and no doubt part of precursors to the Silk Roadand cross-breeding experiments with Chinese yellow cattle to create the hybrid dzo are described there as well. Genetic (mtDNA) studies support the Han Dynasty records that yaks were domesticated on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, although the genetic data does not allow definitive conclusions to be drawn about the number of domestication events. The variety and distribution of mtDNA are not clear, and it is possible that multiple domestication events from the same gene pool, or interbreeding between wild and domesticated animals occurred. However, the mtDNA and archaeological results also blur the dating of the domestication. The earliest evidence for domesticated yak is from the Qugong site, ca. 3750-3100 calendar years ago (cal BP); and the Dalitaliha site, ca 3,000 cal BP near Qinghai Lake. Qugong has a large number of yak bones with an overall small stature; Dalitaliha has a clay figurine thought to represent a yak, the remnants of a wood-fenced corral, and fragments of hubs from spoked wheels. The mtDNA evidence suggests domestication took place as early as 10,000 years BP, and Guo et al. argue that the Qinghai lake Upper Paleolithic colonizers domesticated the yak. The most conservative conclusion to draw from this is that yaks were first domesticated in northern Tibet, probably the Qinghai Lake region, and were derived from wild yak for the production of wool, milk, meat and manual labor, at least 5000 cal bp. How Many Are There? Wild yaks were widespread and abundant in the Tibetan Plateau up until the late 20th century when hunters decimated their numbers. They are now considered highly endangered with an estimated population of ~15,000. They are protected by law but still illegally hunted. Domestic yaks, on the other hand, are abundant, an estimated 14-15 million in central highland Asia. The current distribution of yaks is from the southern slopes of the Himalayas to the Altai and Hangai Mountains of Mongolia and Russia. Approximately 14 million yaks live in China, representing about 95% of the worlds population; the remaining five percent are in Mongolia, Russia, Nepal, India, Bhutan, Sikkim and Pakistan. Sources lvarez I, Pà ©rez-Pardal L, Traorà © A, Fernndez I, and Goyache F. 2016. Lack of specific alleles for the bovine chemokine (C-X-C) receptor type 4 (CXCR4) gene in West African cattle questions its role as a candidate for trypanotolerance. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 42:30-33. Arbuckle BS, Price MD, Hongo H, and Ãâ€"ksà ¼z B. 2016. Documenting the initial appearance of domestic cattle in the Eastern Fertile Crescent (northern Iraq and western Iran). Journal of Archaeological Science 72:1-9. Cai D, Sun Y, Tang Z, Hu S, Li W, Zhao X, Xiang H, and Zhou H. 2014. The origins of Chinese domestic cattle as revealed by ancient DNA analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 41:423-434. Colominas, Là ­dia. The impact of the Roman Empire on animal husbandry practices: study of the changes in cattle morphology in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula through osteometric and ancient DNA analyses.  Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, Angela Schlumbaum, Maria Saà ±a, Volume 6, Issue 1, SpringerLink, March 2014. Ding XZ, Liang CN, Guo X, Wu XY, Wang HB, Johnson KA, and Yan P. 2014. Physiological insight into the high-altitude adaptations in domesticated yaks (Bos grunniens) along the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau altitudinal gradient. Livestock Science 162(0):233-239. doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2014.01.012 Leonardi M, Gerbault P, Thomas MG, and Burger J. 2012. The evolution of lactase persistence in Europe. A synthesis of archaeological and genetic evidence. International Dairy Journal 22(2):88-97. Gron KJ, Montgomery J, Nielsen PO, Nowell GM, Peterkin JL, Sà ¸rensen L, and Rowley-Conwy P. 2016. Strontium isotope evidence of early Funnel Beaker Culture movement of cattle. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 6:248-251. Gron KJ, and Rowley-Conwy P. 2017. Herbivore diets and the anthropogenic environment of early farming in southern Scandinavia. The Holocene 27(1):98-109. Insoll T, Clack T, and Rege O. 2015. Mursi ox modification in the Lower Omo Valley and the interpretation of cattle rock art in Ethiopia. Antiquity 89(343):91-105. MacHugh DE, Larson G, and Orlando L. 2017. Taming the Past: Ancient DNA and the Study of Animal Domestication. Annual Review of Animal Biosciences 5(1):329-351. Orlando L. 2015. The first aurochs genome reveals the breeding history of British and European cattle. Genome Biology 16(1):1-3. Orton J, Mitchell P, Klein R, Steele T, and Horsburgh KA. 2013. An early date for cattle from Namaqualand, South Africa: implications for the origins of herding in southern Africa. Antiquity 87(335):108-120. Park SDE, Magee DA, McGettigan PA, Teasdale MD, Edwards CJ, Lohan AJ, Murphy A, Braud M, Donoghue MT, Liu Y et al. 2015. Genome sequencing of the extinct Eurasian wild aurochs, Bos primigenius, illuminates the phylogeography and evolution of cattle. Genome Biology 16(1):1-15. Qanbari S, Pausch H, Jansen S, Somel M, Strom TM, Fries R, Nielsen R, and Simianer H. 2014. Classic Selective Sweeps Revealed by Massive Sequencing in Cattle. PLoS Genetics 10(2):e1004148. Qiu, Qiang. Yak whole-genome resequencing reveals domestication signatures and prehistoric population expansions. Nature Communications, Lizhong Wang, Kun Wang, et al., Volume 6, Article number: 10283, Decemeber 22, 2015. Scheu A, Powell A, Bollongino R, Vigne J-D, Tresset A, Çakirlar C, Benecke N, and Burger J. 2015. The genetic prehistory of domesticated cattle from their origin to the spread across Europe. BMC Genetics 16(1):1-11. Shi Q, Guo Y, Engelhardt SC, Weladji RB, Zhou Y, Long M, and Meng X. 2016. Endangered wild yak (Bos grunniens) in the Tibetan plateau and adjacent regions: Population size, distribution, conservation perspectives and its relation to the domestic subspecies. Journal for Nature Conservation 32:35-43. Stock, Frauke. Genetics and African Cattle Domestication. African Archaeological Review, Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, Volume 30, Issue 1, SpingerLink, March 2013. Teasdale MD, and Bradley DG. 2012. The Origins of Cattle. Bovine Genomics: Wiley-Blackwell. p 1-10. Upadhyay, MR. Genetic origin, admixture and population history of aurochs (Bos primigenius) and primitive European cattle. Heredity, W Chen, J A Lenstra, et al., Volume 118, Nature, September 28, 2016. Wang K, Hu Q, Ma H, Wang L, Yang Y, Luo W, and Qiu Q. 2014.  Genome-wide variation within and between wild and domestic yak. Molecular Ecology Resources 14(4):794-801. Zhang X, Wang K, Wang L, Yang Y, Ni Z, Xie X, Shao X, Han J, Wan D, and Qiu Q. 2016. Genome-wide patterns of copy number variation in the Chinese yak genome. BMC Genomics 17(1):379.

Written response Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Written response - Research Paper Example The reading is also motivated by the need to explore the influence the memories associated with a given locations, the physical characteristics and the geology on the overall architectural design process. One of the interesting aspects of this reading which comes out to be very engaging is way it explores the relationship between the buildings and the various environmental parameters which in the site where it is located. The reading explores how the orientation of the building, movement of the sun and movement from one building to the other affects design (Farrelly, 2007). It not only impacts on the height and the materials that can be used to construct the building. Generally, the reading is quite informative as it engages the reader to appreciate the key role which the location or site of a building has on the overall project starting from the design to the issue of the building upon

Leadership in Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Leadership in Nursing - Essay Example In this regard, one can found innumerable cases and examples where nurses have been caring and have brought changes in patients’ lives. For this reason, nursing (Peterson’s, 2010) is a respectable and a profession in demand, and will always remain respectable and in demand. At the same time, I believe that nursing though being a profession is an art that involves some personal touches from the individual, as one can acquire nursing-related education from the academic institution but to be a nurse, one should be caring, compassionate, considerate, etc that becomes an art and a self-thing rather than a job. Since my childhood until now, I went through different phases that brought me closer to the families living in my community. Our neighborhood was a tight-knit locality where celebration or even tragedy would become friends and even strangers come together to celebrate or share the moments jointly. In this regard, my decision to go in the nursing profession (Petersonâ⠂¬â„¢s, 2010) was an outcome of a moment of my life when I came across a tragedy, death of a loved one in our community. While recalling my memory, I remember the feelings of compassion and kindness that everybody in the community showed to each other, especially during final days of that loved one. I saw how each individual reduced the pain in a different way as everybody took the death in his or her own perspective. In specific, from that experience, I now relate and interact with patients and their family members as someone from my community that went through the same experience of losing a loved one and that enables me to reduce my anxiety, and at the same time, reduce their pain during taking care of the patients. In other words, nowadays, I put efforts to acquire a different perspective of life in an optimistic manner and employ my knowledge and learning of medical education as my contribution as a nurse. Besides the experiences that influenced me in becoming a registered nurs e, my connection with God has been another notion that has been facilitating me in appreciating people and their relationships, and this relation helps me in taking life as it happens. In this regard, I believe that service is not a thing of everyone and different events of my life and relationship with God has taught me that the major purpose of life is to live for others and very few have really the heart to do that. The learning I have acquired through being a Registered Nurse at the Fresenius Medical Center, as well as at Jefferson Hills Manor have influenced me to perform my best for the betterment of other people both on and off duty. Besides acquisition of Bachelor of Science Degree in Nursing from California University of Pennsylvania, experiences such as volunteering had been very constructive in making me an ambitious person that now ignites me to do everything in life for the sake of other people. In addition, working as dynamic organizations such as Fresenius Medical Cen ter and Jefferson Hills Manor as a registered nurse and patient care technician, I have been successful in developing calmness, character, and skills to be caring in the

Chemical Castration and Physical Castration Essay -- Recidivism of Sex

A Critical Analysis of the Effects of Chemical Castration and Physical Castration on the Recidivism Rates of Sex Offenders Introduction This paper examines the effects of chemical castration and physical castration on the recidivism rates of sex offenders. Using theory integration or the multifactor approach, the findings reveal there are several factors influencing sex offender recidivism. Both chemical castration and physical castration have the potential to reduce the recidivism rates of sex offenders by lowering testosterone levels, diminishing sexual urges, and making sexual urges more controllable if the sexual urges are motivated by increased testosterone levels. Based on theory integration, most sex offences are not motivated by an increased testosterone level but innate biological features, psychological disorders, and social factors making chemical castration and physical castration ineffective in curing most origins of sexual deviance. Literature Review This paper presents a critical analysis of the effects of chemical castration and physical castration on the recidivism rates of sex offenders. In this paper, the term sex offender is defined as a person who has been convicted of a sex crime and released back into the community either directly after sentencing or after serving time in prison for the commission of the sex crime. It should be noted that both men and women commit criminal sex acts, however, this paper will focus on the male offender. First and foremost, it is of prime importance to clarify the nature of rape and sex crimes. According to Groth and Birnbaum’s study in â€Å"Men Who Rape: the Psychology of the Offender† (1979), the motivation for rape and sex crimes stems most commonly from anger and the need to dominate, terrify, and humiliate one’s victim, not from pent-up sexual desire. â€Å"Rape is an act of violence in which sex is used as a weapon† (Benedict, 1992, p.14). Rape is used to control one’s victim in the same way a gun is used to control a store clerk in a robbery. Both are methods of control in order to get what one wants. The majority of men cannot even sustain an erection or ejaculate during the commission of a sex crime (Men against Sexual Violence, 2003). Contrary to popular belief, rape is not the fulfillment of an overly stimulated libido; it is primarily a tool to exert power over a victim. Sex c... ...etreived November 26, 2003 from http://www.rainn.org/statistics.html â€Å"Recidivism of Sex Offenders†. (2001). Center for Sex Offender Management. Retrieved on October 19, 2003 from http://www.csom.org/pubs/recidsexof.html Rice, M.E., Quinsey, V.L., & Harris, G.T. (1991). Sexual recidivism among child molesters released from a maximum security institution. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 381-386. Rosler, A. & Witztum, E. (1998). â€Å"Treatment of Men with Paraphilia with a Long-Acting Analogue of Gonadotropin- Releasing Horomone†. The New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 416-422 Scalora, M. & Garbin, C. (2003). â€Å"A Multivariate Analysis of Sex Offender Recidivism†. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47(3), 309-323 Thornberry, Terence P. â€Å"Reflections on the advantages and disadvantages of theortical integration.† Theoretical Integration in the Study of Deviance and Crime. Ed: Messner, Krohn, and Liska. University of New York Press. Albany: NY. 1989. Tolbert, Tracy. (2004). Criminal Justice 404: Crime Theory, Causation, and Control Lecture Notes. California State University, Long Beach. (Unpublished) Chemical Castration and Physical Castration Essay -- Recidivism of Sex A Critical Analysis of the Effects of Chemical Castration and Physical Castration on the Recidivism Rates of Sex Offenders Introduction This paper examines the effects of chemical castration and physical castration on the recidivism rates of sex offenders. Using theory integration or the multifactor approach, the findings reveal there are several factors influencing sex offender recidivism. Both chemical castration and physical castration have the potential to reduce the recidivism rates of sex offenders by lowering testosterone levels, diminishing sexual urges, and making sexual urges more controllable if the sexual urges are motivated by increased testosterone levels. Based on theory integration, most sex offences are not motivated by an increased testosterone level but innate biological features, psychological disorders, and social factors making chemical castration and physical castration ineffective in curing most origins of sexual deviance. Literature Review This paper presents a critical analysis of the effects of chemical castration and physical castration on the recidivism rates of sex offenders. In this paper, the term sex offender is defined as a person who has been convicted of a sex crime and released back into the community either directly after sentencing or after serving time in prison for the commission of the sex crime. It should be noted that both men and women commit criminal sex acts, however, this paper will focus on the male offender. First and foremost, it is of prime importance to clarify the nature of rape and sex crimes. According to Groth and Birnbaum’s study in â€Å"Men Who Rape: the Psychology of the Offender† (1979), the motivation for rape and sex crimes stems most commonly from anger and the need to dominate, terrify, and humiliate one’s victim, not from pent-up sexual desire. â€Å"Rape is an act of violence in which sex is used as a weapon† (Benedict, 1992, p.14). Rape is used to control one’s victim in the same way a gun is used to control a store clerk in a robbery. Both are methods of control in order to get what one wants. The majority of men cannot even sustain an erection or ejaculate during the commission of a sex crime (Men against Sexual Violence, 2003). Contrary to popular belief, rape is not the fulfillment of an overly stimulated libido; it is primarily a tool to exert power over a victim. Sex c... ...etreived November 26, 2003 from http://www.rainn.org/statistics.html â€Å"Recidivism of Sex Offenders†. (2001). Center for Sex Offender Management. Retrieved on October 19, 2003 from http://www.csom.org/pubs/recidsexof.html Rice, M.E., Quinsey, V.L., & Harris, G.T. (1991). Sexual recidivism among child molesters released from a maximum security institution. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 381-386. Rosler, A. & Witztum, E. (1998). â€Å"Treatment of Men with Paraphilia with a Long-Acting Analogue of Gonadotropin- Releasing Horomone†. The New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 416-422 Scalora, M. & Garbin, C. (2003). â€Å"A Multivariate Analysis of Sex Offender Recidivism†. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47(3), 309-323 Thornberry, Terence P. â€Å"Reflections on the advantages and disadvantages of theortical integration.† Theoretical Integration in the Study of Deviance and Crime. Ed: Messner, Krohn, and Liska. University of New York Press. Albany: NY. 1989. Tolbert, Tracy. (2004). Criminal Justice 404: Crime Theory, Causation, and Control Lecture Notes. California State University, Long Beach. (Unpublished)

Job Negotiation

Job Negotiation Analysis Research on The Job The job that I am looking for is full-time accountant and many companies have openings for staff accountant. Though I have Bachelor's Degree in Accounting and will gain Graduate Diploma, my shortage is that it is my first time to find full-time job and I have little work experience. So I set my career level as entry level and find relative jobs that only need less than 2-year work experience or that have no requirement on years of work experience. Under this situation, I can highlight my unique education, skills and intern-experience.According to my research on Monster. com, there are now 162 jobs matched my requirement in the latest 15days. The industries that need accountants range from education to Energy and Utilities, from Insurance to Transport and Storage. Based on the result, we can see that accountants are greatly needed in the market. About the job, different companies have different specific requirements but generally speaking, responsibilities are almost the same, such as reconciliation of accounting subjects, preparing periodic reports and supporting accounting and financial analysis.All jobs require at least Bachelor’s Degree in Accounting. The majority companies give a range on salary and the overall salary range for the job is between 30,000-77,000 annually, depending on education background and experience. Except basic salary, some companies also have profit share projects. Benefit packages also vary from companies and companies. Ideal one covers health insurance, life insurance, disability insurance, paid time off, housing allowance, transportation allowance and etc.For instance, Liberty Mutual Insurance, a Fortune 100 company, provides a comprehensive benefits plan. Based on historical statistics, first-year accountants earned a median salary of 43,660, according to Salary Wizard. The middle 50 percent of entry-level accountants earned between 39,737 and 48,257. The bottom 10 percent earned below 36,166, while the top 10 percent earned above 52,442. Accountants who have received a master’s degree in accounting are offered 49,786 as a first-year offer. Other issues such as location of the job, scale of the company also decide the salary.For example, the salary of Associate Accountants in Liberty Mutual Insurance is between 42,400 and 58,300. Other than competitive pay, the company also provides comprehensive benefits packages and outstanding advancement opportunities. Furthermore, the job location is Boston. This job is an ideal option for me. But at the same time, I also realize that I have to face reality. The economy in US is not prosperous and some companies just hire US citizens. Thus, during the negotiation, I will make some concession and try to build relationship with employers.PLANNING DOCUMENT FORM 1. Issues that are most important to me (1). Salary. Salary is of the most importance for me. I want salary above the average level and if recruiters can rai se my salary, I can make concession on other issues. (2). Annual bonus. For new employees who work less than one year, most companies will just provide half annual bonus, based on the performance. For me, the biggest difference is whether I can or cannot have annual bonus. I do not care the actual percentage of annual bonus, because after one-year work, I can renegotiate about this issue. 3). Benefits packages (insurance, housing allowance and etc. ) Different companies have different regulation on benefit packages, but most companies will cover at least several issues, such as health insurance, retirement plans. Thus, this issue may be not significant for recruiters because the majority companies have regulation on benefits packages and the plans must cover several issues I raise. (4). Vacation time For a new employee, I do not care much about vacation time. In other aspect, paid-off vacation time increases employee’s salary.During the negotiation, recruiters want to decreas e my vacation time and I can use this item to exchange other important issues. (5). Location As an international student, I am flexible about the location of job. It is perfect if I can go to big cities, but I cannot, it is also fine. But for recruiters, the cost about jobs in different location can vary a lot. 2. My BATNA, Reservation Price and Target Back in China, I have a good job offer. Also, I may get another job offer at a similar firm and I can choose from different offers.My reservation price is 40,000 and any job below that salary will not be accepted even though the job has good benefits package. And my target is to get an accountant job in a well-known company with about $52,000 salary per year, which covers annual bonus plan and basic benefits package. 3. My sources of power I will get my Graduate Diploma in summer. Since accountants are in great need in the market, I can have more choices and change decision during interview or pre-hire. I can go to Career Center to ta lk to professionals and get information and advice on this kind of job.Also, career center can provide historical statistics about a company, such as average salary. Moreover, alumni who work in this field also can give me valuable advice, such as the salary, bonus they get. Last, I have a good job offer in China. If there is no satisfied offer here, I can go back. 4. Issues that are most important to recruiter (1). Salary (2). Annual bonus (3). Vacation time (4). Location (5). Benefits coverage 5. My opponent’s BATNA, Reservation Price, Target The recruiters can hire another candidate.For recruiters, their reservation price is giving me the highest salary and bonus they set and providing me good work location, the most days of vacation and a comprehensive benefits package. For example, there is a salary range for Liberty Mutual Insurance and its reservation price is the highest , which is 58,300, at the current situation. But in fact, employers want someone who can meet all their demand at a low or reasonable cost. 6. My opponent’s sources of power First, the recruiters can get information about me from the school or on Internet (such as Facebook and Twitter).The greatest power for them is that they can choose from different candidates. They know conditions rose by different candidates and can make comparison. For me, I have no idea about other candidates, which is my disadvantage. 7. My opening move/first strategy My biggest weakness is that I do not have enough work experience in this field, so I want the other side to make first offer. Based on the information provided by recruiter, I can choose making concession or raising my own demand. Scoring System Issue| Weight| Options| Option Value| W*V|Salary| 35%| $60,000| 1000| 350| | | $55,000| 800| 280| | | $52,000| 600| 210| | | $48,000| 570| 200| | | $43,000| 500| 175| | | $40,000| 300| 105| Annual Bonus(For the first year)| 25%| 5%| 800| 200| | | 3%| 700| 175| | | 2%| 500| 125| | | 0%| 0| 0| B enefit Package| 20%| 401K| 800| 160| | | Health Insurance| 800| 160| | | Housing Insurance| 600| 120| | | Disability Insurance| 400| 80| | | Transportation Allowance| 300| 60| | | None| 0| 0| Vacation Time(For the first year)| 10%| 15 days| 800| 80| | | 12days| 700| 70| | 10days| 600| 60| | | 7days| 500| 50| | | 5days| 400| 40| Location| 5%| DC,NY,Boston area| 1000| 50| | | Chicago,San Francisco,Houston| 800| 40| | | Other| 400| 20| The score of my target package is 1075 and my BATNA package score is 815. I will let the other side make first offer. On one hand, I can get information about the employer and consider my response. On the other hand, I can avoid being aggressive. During the negotiation, I will try to highlight my education background and inter-experience and fade my work experience.Also, it is important for me to ask question and through the answers, I can verify whether their preference and priorities are the same as I estimate. Moreover, I can provide multiple equivale nt packages to determine the other side’s preference and priorities. For me, salary and annual bonus are more important than other issues and I will not make huge concession on the two issues. I can exchange vacation time and location for the first two issues. I am not worried about benefits package because every company has its own regulation and I certainly can have several items.Being a candidate, I also have to avoid behaving aggressive because building relationship with the other party is important. Reference 1. http://www1. salary. com/Accounting-Salaries. html 2. http://blogs. payscale. com/salary_report_kris_cowan/2012/05/most-us-workers-dont-use-vacation-days. html 3. http://www. glassdoor. com/Salary/KPMG-Salaries-E2867. htm 4. http://www. glassdoor. com/Salaries/accountant-salary-SRCH_KO0,10. htm 5. The Average Salary of First-Year Accountants | eHow. com 6. http://www. ehow. com/info_8271661_average-salary-firstyear-accountants. html#ixzz2LBOGC4OR

What Cheating Out and Other Theater Jargon Means

Drama class and theater rehearsals are some of the only places where cheating is encouraged. No, not cheating on a test. When  actors  cheat  out, they position themselves towards the audience, they share their bodies and voices so that audiences can see and hear them better. To Cheat Out means that the performer readjusts his or her body with an audience in mind. This might mean that the actors stand in a way thats not quite natural — which is why this practice cheats reality just a bit. But at least the audience will be able to see and hear the performer! Very often, when young  actors are  rehearsing on stage, they might turn their backs to the audience, or offer only a limited view. The director then might say, Cheat out, please. Ad Lib During a performance of a play, if you forget your line and cover for yourself by saying something off-the-top of your head, you are ad-libbing, creating dialogue on the spot. The abbreviated term ad lib comes from the  latin phrase:  ad libitum  which means At ones pleasure.But sometimes resorting to an ad lib is anything but pleasurable. For an actor who forgets a line during the middle of a show, an ad lib might be the only way to keep the scene going. Have you ever ad-libbed your way out of a scene? Have you ever helped a fellow actor who forgot his or her lines with an ad lib? Actors have an obligation to learn and deliver the lines of a play precisely as the playwright wrote them, but its good to practice ad-libbing during rehearsals. Off Book When actors have completely memorized their lines, they are said to be off book. In other words, they will be rehearsing with no script (book) in their hands. Most rehearsal schedules will establish a deadline for actors to be off book. And many directors will not allow any scripts in hand — no matter how poorly prepared the actors may be — after the off book deadline. Chewing the Scenery This piece of theatrical jargon is not complimentary. If an actor is chewing the scenery, it means that he or she is over-acting. Speaking too loudly and theatrically, gesticulating largely and more than necessary, mugging for the audience — all of these are examples of chewing the scenery. Unless the character you play is supposed to be a scenery-chewer, its something to avoid. Stepping on Lines Although it is not always (or usually) intended, actors are guilty of stepping on lines when they deliver a line too early and thereby skip over another actors line or they start their line before another actor has finished speaking and thus speak on top of another actors lines. Actors are not fond of the practice of stepping on lines. Breaking Curtain When audiences attend a theatrical production, they are asked to suspend their disbelief — to agree to pretend that the action onstage is real and is happening for the first time. It is the responsibility of the productions cast and crew to help the audience do this. Thus, they must refrain from doing things like peeking out at the audience before or during a performance, waving from offstage to audience members they know, or appearing in costume off the stage during intermission or after the performance ends. All of these behaviors and others are considered breaking curtain. Paper the House When theaters give away a large amount of tickets (or offer the tickets at a very low rate) in order to gain a large audience, this practice is called papering the house. One of the strategies behind papering the house is to create positive word-of-mouth about a show that might otherwise suffer from low-attendance. Papering the house is also helpful to the performers because it is more satisfying and realistic to play to a  full or almost full house than to play for a sparsely populated set of seats. Sometimes papering the house is a rewarding way for theaters to offer seats to groups that might not otherwise be able to afford them.